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There has been an ongoing debate over whether the Irish were among the first slaves in the Americas, predating the arrival of African slaves by nearly a decade. Slavery is one of the oldest profit-making enterprises in human history, and for more than a thousand years, the Irish were a frequent target. Throughout history, they were persecuted by various factions through enslavement, forced labor, and indentured servitude.
When did the Irish first become slaves? How long did the selling of the Irish continue, and who was responsible?
Hello, I’m Colin Heaton, former soldier, U.S. Marine Corps scout sniper, history professor, historian, and author. In this segment of Forgotten History, we address these questions and more.
Some groups deny that the Irish were enslaved under English—and later British—rule, claiming that what existed was merely voluntary indentured servitude. While indentured servitude did exist, there are strong counterarguments. A legitimate dispute remains over the numbers enslaved, particularly during the seventeenth century before the Act of Union in 1707. Official British legal terminology referred to these individuals as indentured servants, but many did not willingly sign contracts to immigrate to the Americas. Many were forced. Those transported unwillingly and effectively sold cannot reasonably be classified as indentured servants.
Those subjected to this system included political prisoners, vagrants, convicts, activists, thieves, prostitutes, and others deemed undesirable by the English government. Ireland’s introduction to slavery dates back to the first Viking raids in 795, lasting through the mid-ninth century. During this period, the Irish were killed and enslaved much like many other societies attacked by the Vikings.
Early raids focused on northern and eastern coastal regions, using hit-and-run tactics. Vikings fled with treasure and slaves, returning to holdings in Scotland or Norway. Some slaves were ransomed back to their families, but many remained in captivity. From 837 onward, larger targets were attacked, including major monastic centers such as Armagh, Glendalough, Kildare, Slane, Clonard, Clonmacnoise, and Lismore. These raids were carried out by larger forces, though slaves continued to be taken primarily to Scotland and Iceland.
In 875, Irish slaves in Iceland launched Europe’s largest slave rebellion since the fall of the Roman Empire, killing their owner and fleeing to the Vestmannaeyjar islands. Earlier, in 841, the port that would become Dublin was seized by Olaf and Ivar the Boneless. By 853, Dublin had become a Norse trading hub where slaves were a major commodity. The trade continued even after Ivar’s death in 873.
In 902, Vikings were driven out of Dublin by Irish forces from Brega and Leinster, but they returned in 914 and resumed raiding and slave-taking. Irish resistance culminated in 980, when Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, King of Meath, defeated the Vikings and freed their slaves. Some Vikings assimilated, converted to Christianity, and became part of Irish society.
The final blow to Viking dominance came in 1014 at the Battle of Clontarf, when Brian Boru, High King of Ireland, defeated the Norse forces in Dublin. Slaves were freed once again, ending centuries of Norse slave raids.
Slavery in its formal sense was abolished in Ireland by 1102, though serfdom persisted for centuries. After the Norman invasion of England in 1066, Norman rulers set their sights on Ireland. In 1155, Pope Adrian IV allegedly granted Henry II permission to invade Ireland, though many historians believe this document was forged. Regardless, Henry II landed in Ireland in 1171, cementing Norman influence. While slavery was ended, serfdom continued, as selling agricultural laborers would have undermined the feudal economy.
After the Battle of Kinsale in 1601, which defeated Irish and Spanish forces, Irish aristocrats fled to Europe while commoners remained. English forces captured thousands of Irish soldiers. In 1603, King James I reportedly issued an order of banishment, allowing captured Irish to be sold abroad. By 1612, the first recorded Irish slaves were transported to the Americas, possibly to Portuguese Brazil.
Though some argue these individuals were indentured servants, the fact remains that they were forcibly removed. In 1625, King Charles I authorized the transport and sale of Irish prisoners and so-called undesirables to the American colonies. Tens of thousands of Irish men and women were sent to North America and the Caribbean, including Montserrat, Antigua, Guyana, and Barbados.
By 1637, roughly 69 percent of Montserrat’s population was Irish. While many were indentured servants, others were clearly enslaved. Irish laborers were cheaper than African slaves and often traded for cotton, tobacco, or indigo. During the mid-1600s, Irish laborers became the primary source of coerced labor for English plantations.
Between the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and 1652, it is claimed that over 550,000 Irish were killed and another 300,000 sold into slavery. Oliver Cromwell was the chief architect of this system. Under his rule, tens of thousands were deported to the Caribbean. In 1652, he ordered twelve thousand Irish sent to Barbados alone.
Children were not spared. It is claimed that up to 100,000 Irish children were taken and sold across the West Indies and North American colonies. Orders from the English Council of State authorized the roundup and transport of Irish youths to Jamaica and other colonies. Contemporary correspondence reveals concern among English officials that the forcibly deported Irish might revolt—concern that would be unnecessary if they were merely indentured servants.
Whether one accepts all claims regarding Irish slavery or disputes the numbers, the reality remains that many Irish were forcibly removed, sold, and subjected to conditions indistinguishable from slavery. The exact numbers may never be known.
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